The Yuan Dynasty was the continuation of the Mongol Empire and was the center of the largest empire in history, and was a feudal society that occupied the lands of Mongolia, China, and Korea, founded by the Mongols. The Yuan Dynasty in East Asia was founded by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, from 1260 to 1294. Kublai was born in 1215 to Sorkhugtani Bekhi. He was a bright, eloquent, and intelligent child from a young age.
Kublai founded the Yuan Dynasty and brought the Golden Horde, the Ilkhanate, and the Chagatai under his rule. His empire covered one-fifth of the world’s landmass, from the Pacific Ocean to the Danube River, and from the Arctic Ocean to the Indian Ocean.
Kublai Khan was the Mongol khan who began a new era of conquest after 1260. In 1263, he established his own military service, which was composed of the descendants of four of Genghis Khan’s subjects: Borohul, Boorchi, Mukhulai, and Zev, and granted them privileges. Kublai Khan pursued a flexible and wise religious policy to stabilize his vast empire, which was composed of many ethnic groups and different cultures.
The Tibetan Sajjad monk Lodoyjaltsang was elevated to the position of State Teacher (later Shashin Khan). He laid the foundation for the theory of “combining state and religion”, in which the king was responsible for state affairs and the state teacher for religious affairs.
Buddhist, Christian, Islamic, and Taoist monasteries and lamas were exempted from taxes and prevented internal conflicts.
Kublai Khan invited a monk named Haiyun to inquire about Buddhist philosophy. In 1258, he convened a meeting of Buddhist leaders and converted 237 temples into Buddhist temples. The Yuan Dynasty chose Buddhism as the state religion. Although Buddhism was chosen as the main state religion, Mongolian traditions and shamanic rituals were still maintained within the palace.
Kublai Khan created a progressive system of governance by combining nomadic and settled civilizations.
In 1264, Kublai Khan moved the center of state to Beijing and built a summer palace in Shandong. (From Kharkhorum to Khanbalig – present-day Beijing)
In order to unify the multilingual empire, he wrote the square script with the help of the Pagoda Lama and made it the official state script.
For the first time in world history, he certified and introduced paper money called “Chao” that was mandatory for use throughout the country. Thus, paper money could be converted into gold and silver, and the government collected paper money from taxpayers.
In 1268, a tax office was established.
The Silk Road was made safe, a unified network of stations was expanded throughout the empire, and trade was developed like never before.
While using traditional Chinese governance structures, flexible laws such as lenient sentencing policies and restrictions on torture have been implemented.
At the time when Kublai Khan established the Yuan State, he ruled Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang, Yunnan, most of northern China, and some conquered territories.
Astronomy Center was established in 1271. During the reign of Kublai Khan, many works were done that greatly contributed to the culture of the East. He invited an artist, scribe, writer, mathematician named Liu, a scientist named Zhao Bi, and educated people from Tibetan and Turkic nations. Kublai Khan was a supporter of Asian art and religious faith.
In 1272, Korea was fully controlled by the Yuan Dynasty. When Kublai Khan successfully destroyed the Southern Song in 1279, he became the first non-Chinese emperor to conquer all Chinese people. The Yuan Dynasty, established by Kublai Khan, existed for about 200 years, and the current Chinese currency is named after the Yuan Dynasty.
Kublai Khan’s foreign policy was both diplomatic and military. Under Kublai Khan, direct contact between East Asia and the West was opened, and the Mongols controlled the Central Asian trade routes and provided a post office, which was of great importance to the Mongol Empire. By the early 13th century, Europeans and Central Asians had established routes to China through pilgrimage, travel, tourism, and envoys. Since the Mongols controlled China, all trade routes led to Russia, Persia, and Mesopotamia, wherever they lay within the Mongol Empire. Envoys were exchanged directly between the Great Khan and the Pope several times.
In 1266, Kublai Khan granted permission to the Venetian pilgrims, and granted permission to hundreds of Christian missionaries and engineers, including the Polo brothers.
In 1263, the Polo brothers returned to Rome.
Rabban Bar-Sauma, a minister of Kublai Khan and Il-Khan Arghun, made a second journey to Rome, Paris, Boreucas, and the East in 1287-1288, and met with their chief rulers. Marco Polo, the son of Niccolo, accompanied his father on this journey, which is probably the reason why he became the best-known traveler in China and Mongolia. He spent 17 years under Kublai Khan, trading and acting as an envoy in Yunnan and Fujian provinces, from 1275 to 1292.
Kublai Khan, who ruled the Mongol Empire not only by force but also by the wisdom of combining the two religions and finding harmony among the many nations, was praised by the people and nobles and honored as “The Wise King.”
During his reign, Kublai Khan conquered not only present-day China, but also Tibet, Vietnam, Burma, Iran, Russia, and Indonesia, as well as half of the countries of the time. Kublai Khan died on February 18, 1294, at the age of 78.
After Kublai Khan’s death, Ulziit Timur Khan became the second emperor of the Yuan Dynasty.
In 1368, a peasant uprising broke out in China, and the Yuan Dynasty, which was founded by Kublai Khan and centered in China, collapsed.
Prepared by Dr. S. Erdenebulgan
